2023.08.03.57
Files > Volume 8 > Vol 8 No 3 2023

Implications of Particle Size in the Extraction of Cellulose from the Calamagrostis Intermedia Species

1 Recursos
Naturales Renovables. Facultad de Recursos Naturales. Escuela Superior
Politécnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH); [email protected]
.
2 Recursos
Naturales Renovables. Facultad de Recursos Naturales. Escuela Superior Politécnica
de Chimborazo (ESPOCH); [email protected].
3 Recursos Naturales Renovables.
Facultad de Recursos Naturales. Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo
(ESPOCH); [email protected] . ORCID
* Correspondence:
Tel: 0992862598, E-mail: [email protected] (D.R Manzano)
Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/RB/2023.08.03.57
ABSTRACT
This research aimed to elucidate the
implications of particle size on cellulose extraction from the species Calamagrostis
intermedia, endemic to Ecuador. Within the versatile cellulose extraction
and trade industry, using timber sources results in a relentless environmental
impact, mainly when no resource rationing occurs during the washing or
bleaching phases. The investigation incorporated a sample pretreatment
encompassing a drying, grinding, and sieving study, followed by an alkaline
extraction. The study found that particle size significantly affected the
quantity of fiber and cellulose pulp extracted from samples previously dried at
65°C with particle sizes of 300 and 106 μm. Characterization tests revealed
variations in the color and texture of the extracted cellulose, attributable to
an ineffective delignification stage within the fiber bleaching process.
Variations in molecular weight corresponding to 126.32 x 103 g/mol
were identified among samples, and FTIR analysis presented a syringyl ring and
lignin stretching. Optical microscopy exposed the absence of well-defined
regions in the fibers and a readily observable crystalline network. In
conclusion, particle size critically influences cellulose extraction from
Calamagrostis intermedia, impacting the yield and properties of the
resultant product, indicating that further optimization of the extraction and
delignification process is required to enhance the quality of the extracted
cellulose.
Keywords:
Calamagrostis intermedia; Particle Size; Cellulose
Extraction
INTRODUCTION
Cellulose
is a biopolymer comprising hundreds or thousands of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms 1. It primarily constitutes the cell walls of the plant
kingdom, functioning as a structural scaffold that permits plant rigidity 2.
The ubiquity of cellulose makes it the most abundant component of the earth's
biomass, although its proportion varies with plant species, maturity, and type 3.
With the progression of plant growth and cell formation, the polymerization of
cellulose naturally occurs through the addition of glucose molecules and
subsequent water molecule expulsion. Composed of long chains of beta glucose
molecules, cellulose polysaccharides are bound together by glycosidic bonds,
with the glucose subunit orientation allowing for the protrusion of OH groups
in all directions4,5. These OH groups can form hydrogen bonds with
adjacent chains, establishing a three-dimensional network, which is not
observed in starch molecules 6,7.
Cellulose
exhibits a versatile spectrum of utility across various industries, ranging
from animal feed and paper manufacturing to fibers, clothing, and even cosmetic
and pharmaceutical sectors 8. Particularly in the pharmaceutical
sector, cellulose and its semi-synthetic derivatives, such as cellulose ethers
and esters, possess unique physicochemical and mechanical properties, making
them valuable for myriad applications 9. They are critical in
formulating various pharmaceutical items, such as fillers, taste masking
agents, and adhesive agents in transdermal patches, among many other functions 10.
The increasing popularity of these polymers within the pharmaceutical industry
can be attributed to the continual development of novel derivatives and
applications 11. Notably, cellulose ethers, a subset of cellulose
derivatives, are commonly employed in bioadhesives and used across various
formulations, such as oral, ocular, vaginal, nasal, and transdermal 12, 13.
Beyond
its industrial and pharmacological utility, cellulose is the principal raw
material in manufacturing paper, cellophane, celluloid, and rayon. It also
features prominently in various household items, including plastics, films,
synthetic sponges, and as the chief source of dietary fiber. Cellulose is
essential in ethanol production through fermentation, marking it as a vital
renewable resource 14,15. Hence, cellulose's commercial significance
and widespread application cannot be overstated16.
Nevertheless,
cellulose extraction from traditional wood sources poses substantial
environmental challenges. Wood extraction for cellulose production contributes
to the degradation of water resources due to the large amounts of water
required for the process and the generation of liquid industrial waste 17,18.
This pollution of freshwater bodies is a global issue that extends beyond local
environments 19,20.
Given
the environmental consequences of cellulose extraction from wood sources, there
is a growing urgency to explore non-wood sources. A considerable body of
research indicates the potential of non-wood plant species as viable sources of
cellulose 22 . However, more in-depth investigations
into the extraction process, particularly the influence of particle size in the
extraction yield and quality, are needed23 .
The
current shortfall in comprehensive understanding highlights the importance of
this research, which endeavors to elucidate the role of particle size in the
cellulose extraction process from non-wood sources. For this investigation, we selected
Calamagrostis intermedia, an endemic Andean straw species widely
distributed across Ecuador. Despite its abundance, this particular species
currently does not hold a defined industrial use. It grows in vast quantities
throughout the Andean region, making it a highly accessible resource. This
untapped potential and abundance make it an attractive and sustainable
alternative for cellulose production. By turning to this readily available and
under-utilized resource, the research contributes to environmental
sustainability and can provide a new impetus to local economies. Therefore,
this study serves as a crucial exploration into the potential of Calamagrostis
intermedia as a non-wood source for cellulose extraction.23 An alkaline extraction method was
implemented with a primary focus on investigating the effects of particle size
while keeping other extraction variables consistent. The resulting cellulose's
characteristics were then correlated with the particle size. This study
represents a pivotal step towards environmentally sustainable cellulose
production practices, as it delivers a comprehensive analysis of non-wood
sources for cellulose extraction and the optimal conditions required for such
processes. Consequently, the applied alkaline extraction method aimed to
discern the particle size's impacts by managing identical variables during the
extraction and correlating the information derived from the characterization
tests executed on the extracted cellulose.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The
study was conducted at a laboratory level, considering the peculiarities of
industrial extraction methodology. Calamagrostis intermedia, a
non-timber species endemic to Ecuador with no defined commercial uses or
extractive agriculture, was selected as a source 22. The species is
not considered endangered as it is not listed in the Red Book of Endemic
Species of Ecuador 23. An experimental design was proposed where the
variables of interest are particle size and moisture content related to drying
temperature in the samples to be treated for extraction and subsequent
characterization.
Raw
Material
Samples
of the Andean straw species Calamagrostis intermedia were collected at
the location -1°28'13.225"S-78°45'1.001" W belonging to the Condor
Samana parish within the Guano canton in the Chimborazo Province. It is worth
mentioning that during the collection process, the plant roots were not
extracted; instead, pruning was carried out at a height of 5 cm from the base,
considering samples in which the leaves are at least 90 cm high. After
collection, the samples were sent for botanical identification.
Sample
Pretreatment
Considering
the percentage by weight of water contained in the sample as a reaction
intermediate that could disrupt the specificity of reagents in the cellulose
extraction process, a drying study was proposed. This was followed by a
particle size study that would reveal the influence of this variable on the
extraction process. In this manner, 100 g of straw was weighed and placed on
each tray. Drying was carried out at temperatures of 65°C and 80°C until a
constant weight was achieved, with the weight recorded every hour. The dry
straw was crushed and placed in a sieve for 10 minutes at 200 rpm.
Sample
Pretreatment Equipment
Electric tray dryer Aio-300
Balance GRAM FS-220
0.5 Hp grinder
Sieve AS 200 RESTCH
Experimental
Design
To
determine the influence of particle size on cellulose extraction from this
non-timber plant species, an experimental design was proposed for the
pretreatment of the sample before extraction, simulating laboratory-level
methodological conditions. Therefore, the drying temperature was considered a
variable because the water molecules bound to the cellulose portions result
from the plant's natural polymerization process. This substance, in turn,
prevents accurate extraction using a basic solution. Additionally, particle
size after drying was considered since grinding depends on the dry portion of
the sample 17. In this way, the 22 experimental designs
considered that the best analytical result is sought in terms of cellulose and
fiber percentage, as well as the physical and chemical characterization of the
extracted cellulose, as shown in Table 1.

Table
1. Factors
and levels of the 2^2 experimental design
Cellulose
Extraction
Given
the industrial-level peculiarities of the cellulose extraction process, an
alkaline extraction was used at the laboratory level. Thus, in a 10% NaOH
solution, the Andean straw samples were placed and heated to a temperature of
90° C, maintaining this temperature for 10 minutes. After this time, it was
allowed to cool to room temperature. The solid phase was washed with plenty of
water until it reached a neutral pH. Then, it was placed in a 4% by-volume
sulfuric acid solution. The mixture was boiled for an hour and cooled to room
temperature. The solid phase was washed until it reached a neutral pH. The
washed sample was placed in a 3.5% volume sodium chlorite solution. The mixture
was left to rest for 3 hours and heated for 40 minutes at 95° C. The solid
phase was washed until it reached a neutral pH. The sample was placed in a 20%
by volume NaOH solution and heated to 50° C on a stir plate at medium speed for
1 hour. The solid phase was washed until it reached a neutral pH. The solid
phase was placed in a 0.5% sodium chlorite solution, and the previous step was
repeated. Finally, the last wash was carried out until a pH of 7 was obtained,
and it was dried for 6 hours at 70° C.
Materials
and Reagents for Cellulose Extraction
Electric tray dryer Aio-300
Balance GRAM FS-220
Reverbero PROCTOR SILEX
pH Potentiometer HANNA EDGE
Magnetic Stirrer VEVOR 79-1
Sodium Hydroxide MERCK CAS 1310-73-2
Sulfuric Acid MERCK CAS 7664-93-9
Sodium Chlorite MERCK CAS 7758-19-2
Beakers of 1000, 500, 250 and 100 mL
Watch glass
Spatula
Tweezers
Thermometer
Distilled water
Mesh filter
Timer
Stirring rod
Wash bottle
500mL volumetric flask
10 and 25 mL pipettes
Suction bulb
Characterization
of Extracted Cellulose
Molecular
Weight Determination
The
Spanish Association of Cellulose, Pulp and Paper Manufacturers (ASPAPEL) 24
recommends this widely used characterization test at the industrial and
laboratory level. A viscometry analysis was applied using an Ostwald
viscometer. A solution of pentahydrate copper sulfate with distilled water,
sulfuric acid at 50% volume, and ammonium hydroxide was prepared. To this
solution, 0.035 g of extracted cellulose was added, thus preparing solutions of
concentration 0.1-0.3-0.5-0.7 g/L for each experiment. Then, 15 mL of
cupriethylenediamine standard was placed in the Ostwald viscometer, maintaining
a temperature of 25 °C. The previous procedure was repeated with the
concentrations of diluted cellulose to evaluate the difference in travel times
within the instrument 17,25.
FTIR
Analysis
Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy provides information about the molecular
structure of a polymer 26, which allows identification according to
the obtained spectra. The samples were ground in a mortar until a uniform fine
powder was obtained, and they were analyzed within the zone corresponding to
4000 to 600 cm-1. The obtained spectra were reported using the SPECTRAL MANAGER
software, and the vibrations in the peaks of each functional group were
compared with those reported in samples of cellulose extracted from cotton and
wood 27.
Type
of Cellulose
The
typology of the obtained structural cellulose can be characterized by
identifying the position of the hydroxyl group through which the glycosidic
bond was generated in the aldose 24. This way, each cellulose
sample's solubility was established using 0.1g of cellulose in 10 mL of NaOH at
17.5% and 8% volume.
Optical
Microscopy
This
analysis is of interest since, in the chemical industry and the manufacturing
field, polymers are observed under the microscope when observing the morphology
of the crystal, spherulites, fracture plane surfaces, process control, failure
analysis, roughness, deformation, quantitative and qualitative analysis of the
microstructure and when observing interference patterns 28.
Therefore, a direct observation at an amplitude of 40 and 60 X was applied to
the extracted cellulose samples, comparing the regions and images with those
reported in samples of cellulose extracted from cotton and wood.
Materials
and Equipment in the Characterization
Mortar
Spatula
Distilled water
Spatula
Stirring Rod
50mL beaker
Test tubes
50 mL graduated cylinder
Pentahydrate copper sulfate AVALCO
Ammonium hydroxide BIOPACK
Sodium Hydroxide MERCK CAS 1310-73-2
Sulfuric Acid MERCK CAS 7664-93-9
Balance GRAM FS-220
IR Spectrophotometer JASCO FT/IR-4100typeA
Optical Microscope UNICO M280
Ostwald viscometer YUCHENGTECH
Stopwatch
RESULTS
Taxonomic
Identification of the Samples
Based
on the morphology and taxonomy analyzed in the collected samples and compared
with patterns identified in the Alfredo Paredes Herbarium of the Central
University of Ecuador, the samples in this study were determined to belong to
the Poaceae family, specifically the species Calamagrostis intermedia (J.
Presi) Steud. This confirmation establishes the specimen as a non-timber
species, endemic to Ecuador and not endangered.
Sample
Drying

Table
2. Sample Drying
Table
2 illustrates the sample mass recorded every hour during drying at two different
temperatures. While the sample at 65°C maintains a consistent mass for 11 hours
(thus marking the post-critical point in the drying kinetics), this point is
reached at 8 hours when the temperature is set at 80°C. However, 9 and 12.2 g
losses are registered at 65° and 80° C respectively. The data suggests that the
sample contains approximately 10% water before extraction.

Table
3.
Sieving of the Sample
Table
3 presents the results of the sieving study applied after grinding the dried
sample. It shows that particle sizes corresponding to the 300 and 106 μm mesh
apertures retain the most mass in samples treated at 65 and 80°C.
Experimental
Design

Table
4.
Fiber and Cellulose Percentage Recovered in the Conjugation of Experimental
Variables
To
determine the percentage of cellulose and fiber in each experiment where the
experimental design was applied, the following formulas were used:
Cellulose
Fiber = X/P x 100 (1)
Where:
X
= quantity of fiber (g)
P
= quantity of dried straw (g)
Cellulose
Yield = C/Z x 100 (2)
Where:
C
= quantity of pulp (g)
Z
= Cellulose fiber (g)
It
is established that the cellulose extraction process presenting the highest
mass of fiber and cellulose pulp is the one considering samples previously
dried at 65°C and particle sizes of 300 and 106 μm.
Cellulose
Extraction

Table
5.
Fiber Mass and Extracted Cellulose Pulp in Samples of Definitive Particle Size
Table
5 highlights the difference in the mass quantity of fiber and extracted
cellulose pulp in samples of 300 and 106 μm particle size. Although this
difference is minimal, Figure 1 demonstrates a significant variance in the
color and texture of the extracted cellulose pulp, presumably due to an
inefficient delignification process that hinders adequate fiber swelling and poor
cellulose release, showcasing the influence of particle size on the extraction.

Figure
1.
Extracted Cellulose Pulp from Different Particle Sizes.
Cellulose
Characterization
Although
the cellulose extracted from the 300 μm sample appears yellowish. With the
typical structure of cellulose fiber, characterization tests were applied in
both cases to determine the influence of particle size and its effect on the
structural properties of the extracted cellulose.
Molecular
Weight
Figure
2 shows the extrapolation when the concentration tends to zero, considering
five experiments to determine the reduced viscosity of the sample. In this way,
it is possible to replace the value of this viscosity in the Mark Houwink
equation, considering the constants and parameters described in the literature 25.
In this way, the molecular weight obtained in the cellulose extracted from the
106 and 300 μm sample size is 292.83 x 103 g/mol and 419.15 x 103
g/mol, respectively. A notable difference of about 126.32 x 103
g/mol is observed in this characterization test. This magnitude of difference
is assumed to be related to the amount of lignin present in the fibers of the
300 μm sample. However, both samples are within the optimal standard molecular
weight of industrial-grade cellulose.

Figure 2. Determination of
reduced viscosity in the samples
FTIR
Analysis
Figure
3 shows the spectra and vibrations obtained in the samples of cellulose
extracted from defined particle sizes. In this way, it is possible to
characterize these polymers based on the percentage of transmittance present in
each vibration assigned to a specific functional group, thereby providing
precise structural information about the type of polymer obtained. Generally,
both spectra show very similar patterns in vibrations and transmittance
percentages. The observed wave numbers are similar for hydroxyl functional
groups, C-H stretching in methyl and methylene groups, non-conjugated ester
groups, bending in cellulose and hemicellulose, cellulose and hemicellulose
C-O-C, CH and C-O- deformations. However, in the wave numbers corresponding to
the syringyl ring and C-O stretching in lignin and xylan, a value of 1268.93 cm-1
is found in the 300 μm sample, while this peak is not evident in the 106 μm
sample. Therefore, the inefficiency of the delignification process in this
sample is rectified.

Figure 3. FTIR analysis of
cellulose samples extracted from particle sizes of 106 and 300 μm
Type
of Cellulose
About
the solubility of the samples in 17.5% and 8% sodium hydroxide solutions, it
was determined that the cellulose present in the plant species corresponds to
the beta type as it is soluble in a concentration of 17.5% volume of sodium
hydroxide.
Optical
Microscopy
Upon
applying this characterization analysis, very intertwined fibers are observed
in both samples. However, in the cellulose sample extracted from a particle
size of 106 μm, the fiber contours are even and present clear crystallinity,
which is expected in high-purity polymers. Conversely, the fibers are
noticeably thicker in the cellulose extracted from the 300 μm particle size and
no defined contours with crystallinity are observed.

Figure 4. Optical microscopy of
cellulose samples extracted from particle sizes of 106 and 300 μm.
DISCUSSION
The
results derived from this investigation reveal several intriguing aspects
concerning the extraction and characterization of cellulose from different
particle sizes. Firstly, the molecular weight results suggest that the lignin
content within the fibers may considerably impact the final molecular weight.
There was a notable difference of approximately 126.32 x 103 g/mol
between the cellulose extracted from the 106 μm and 300 μm samples. This
variance could be attributed to the higher lignin content in the 300 μm sample,
which would indeed increase the overall molecular weight29. However,
both samples still fall within the optimal standard molecular weight range for
industrial cellulose, suggesting that the particle size does not significantly
influence the applicability of the extracted cellulose.
Our
FTIR analysis revealed similar spectra and vibrations for both extracted
cellulose samples, indicating that the polymer structure remains unchanged
despite the particle size difference. Both spectra exhibited functional groups
related to cellulose, such as hydroxyl, C-H stretching in methyl and methylene
groups, unconjugated ester groups, cellulose and hemicellulose C-O-C, CH
deformation, and C-O- stretching. Yet, the 300 μm sample peaked at 1268.93 cm-1,
indicative of syringyl ring and C-O stretching in lignin and xylan. The absence
of this peak in the 106 μm sample implies a more efficient delignification
process.
The
cellulose type was determined to be beta cellulose based on its solubility in
17.5% sodium hydroxide. This type of cellulose is a standard variety found in
many plant species, and its identification aligns with prior research26.
Optical
microscopy presented a detailed visual of the fiber structure. The cellulose
extracted from the 106 μm particles exhibited even contours and a clear
crystallinity, characteristic of highly pure polymers12. However,
the cellulose from the 300 μm particles was noticeably thicker. It lacked
well-defined contours and crystallinity, possibly due to the less efficient
delignification process and higher lignin content.
Together,
these results offer valuable insights into the role of particle size in
cellulose extraction and characterization. However, further research is needed
to comprehensively understand the intricate interplay between particle size,
lignin content, and cellulose properties. Additionally, developing and
optimizing more efficient delignification processes could improve cellulose
purity and molecular weight consistency, thereby widening its applicability in
industrial processes 30.
CONCLUSIONS
The
core of this study revolves around a non-timber plant species, classified based
on the patterns identified at the Alfredo Paredes Herbarium of the Central
University of Ecuador. Specifically, the species in question belongs to the
Poaceae family and is taxonomically identified as Calamagrostis intermedia (J.
Presi) Steud. This species is endemic to Ecuador and is currently not at
risk.
The
investigation analyzed the influence of particle size on the cellulose
extraction process and found that the highest fiber and cellulose pulp mass was
achieved with particle sizes of 300 and 106 μm, pre-dried at 65°C.
Characterization tests revealed notable variations in the color and texture of
the extracted cellulose. Cellulose derived from the 300 μm particle size was
yellowish due to incomplete delignification during bleaching.
The
characterization tests further substantiated these findings, with both samples
meeting industrial cellulose's quantifiable and qualitative parameters.
Nonetheless, differences were observed in molecular weight, with a divergence
of 126.32 x 103 g/mol between the samples. The FTIR analysis
identified a wavenumber of 1268.93 cm-1, corresponding to the
syringyl ring and C-O stretching in lignin and xylan. Optical microscopy
demonstrated that cellulose extracted from the 300 μm particle size lacked
well-defined regions within the fibers and a discernable crystalline network.
This
study posits that particle size significantly influences the delignification,
bleaching of pulp, and the swelling process of fibers, facilitating the release
of cellulose within plant cell walls. This effect is closely tied to the
concept that an increased surface area heightens the efficiency of the chemical
reaction. When particle size permits a larger contact surface between the
reactant and reagent, the reaction yield improves. This principle is decisive
in determining the properties and influences on reaction kinetics. Hence, under
the conditions of this study, a larger contact surface area leads to a more
efficient bleaching reaction.
It
was ascertained that the plant species contains beta-type cellulose, which
carries significant implications for its potential uses and processing
techniques. These results validate the importance of particle size in cellulose
extraction and suggest the potential of underutilized plant species like
Calamagrostis intermedia as viable alternatives for sustainable cellulose
production.
Given
the successful extraction and characterization of cellulose from Calamagrostis
intermedia, the authors suggest that future investigations could expand this
approach to other species within the Poaceae family or even beyond to diversify
non-timber sources of cellulose further. Species like Miscanthus giganteus, a
high-yield perennial grass, or even Bamboo species, which proliferate and are
known for their high cellulose content, could be potential candidates for
future research. Other native grasses that are abundant and underutilized in
different regions around the world, such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)
or vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) in tropical regions, may also prove
to be promising sources of cellulose.
The
findings of this study pave the way toward a more sustainable cellulose
industry, moving away from the current environmentally detrimental practices.
The authors propose that future research consider other taxonomically similar
species, expanding the scope of non-timber alternatives for cellulose
extraction. Implementing such findings into practice could significantly lessen
the environmental impact and create a path toward a more sustainable cellulose
industry..
Patents
Does
not apply.
Acknowledgments: Foremost, the group of
authors involved in this study would like to express their sincere gratitude to
the Alfredo Paredes Herbarium of the Central University of Ecuador for their
generous assistance with the botanical identification of the plant species
examined. Similarly, our most profound appreciation goes to the Escuela
Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, particularly the Faculty of Natural
Resources authorities, for providing the academic support necessary for this
research.
Conflicts of Interest: No conflicts of
interest are reported.
REFERENCES
1.
Radotić K, Mićić M. Methods for
Extraction and Purification of Lignin and Cellulose from Plant Tissues.
2018;365–76.
2. de Dios
Naranjo C, Alamilla-Beltrán L, Gutiérrez-Lopez GF, Terres-Rojas E,
Solorza-Feria J, Romero-Vargas S, et al. Aislamiento y caracterización de
celulosas obtenidas de fibras de Agave salmiana aplicando dos métodos de
extracción ácido-alcali*. Rev Mex De Cienc Agric. 2016;7:31–43.
3. Tudoroiu
EE, Dinu-Pîrvu CE, Kaya MGA, Popa L, Anuța V, Prisada RM, et al. An Overview of Cellulose
Derivatives-Based Dressings for Wound-Healing Management. Pharmaceuticals
[Internet]. 2021 dic 1 [citado 2022 sep 1];14(12):1215. Available from:
/pmc/articles/PMC8706040/
4. Manzano
Vela DR, Novillo Logroño FA. Preparation
and Characterization of Cellulose Acetate and Cellulose Nitrate Prepared from
Cellulose Extracted from Calamagrostis intermedia. Asian Journal of Chemistry
[Internet]. 2022 jul 18 [citado 2022 sep 1];34(8):2099–104. Available from:
https://asianjournalofchemistry.co.in/user/journal/viewarticle.aspx?ArticleID=34_8_22
5. Hon DNS, Shiraishi N. Wood and Cellulosic
Chemistry, Revised, and Expanded. Wood and Cellulosic Chemistry, Revised, and
Expanded. 2015.
6. Vega-Baudrit J, Sibaja M, Nikolaeva S,
Rivera A. Síntesis Y Caracterización De Celulosa Amorfa. Revista
Sociedad Química de Perú. 2014;80(1):45–50.
7. Romero P,
Marfisi S, Oliveiros P, Rojas B, Peña G. Obtención De Celulosa Microcristalina
a Partir De. 2014;15(6):286–300.
8. Chen D, Gao A, Cen K, Zhang J, Cao X, Ma Z.
Investigation of biomass torrefaction based on three major components:
Hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Energy Convers Manag [Internet].
2018;169(April):228–37. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.05.063
9. Henao L,
Rojas I, Giraldo G. Cuantificación de celulosa proveniente de residuos de la
industria del mueble. Ingenieria de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente.
2009;8:23–8.
10.
Wu JH, He CY. Advances in
Cellulose-Based Sorbents for Extraction of Pollutants in Environmental Samples
[Internet]. Vol. 82, Chromatographia. Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn Verlags GmbH;
2019 [citado 2021 mar 7]. p. 1151–69. Available from:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10337-019-03708-x
11. Sanchez S,
Garcia Y, Carlos L, Falconi R, Veleva L. METODOS PARA EXTRAER CELULOSA DE LA
PAJA DE CANA DE AZUCAR (Saccharum spp.). AGROProductividad [Internet]. 2017 nov
1 [citado 2020 ago 26];10(11):54–60. Available from:
https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=IFME&sw=w&issn=&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA530914347&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=fulltext
12.
Orelma H, Hokkanen A, Leppänen I,
Kammiovirta K, Kapulainen M, Harlin A. Optical cellulose fiber made from
regenerated cellulose and cellulose acetate for water sensor applications.
Cellulose [Internet]. 2020 feb 1 [citado 2021 mar 7];27(3):1543–53. Available
from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02882-3
13.
Golubev AE, Kuvshinova SA, Burmistrov
VA, Koifman OI. Modern Advances in the Preparation and Modification of
Cellulose Nitrates. Russ J Gen Chem [Internet]. 2018 feb 1 [citado 2021 mar
7];88(2):368–81. Available from:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1070363218020305
14.
Shokri J, Adibkia K. Application of
Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives in Pharmaceutical Industries. Cellulose -
Medical, Pharmaceutical and Electronic Applications [Internet]. 2013 ago 29
[citado 2022 sep 1]; Available from: undefined/state.item.id
15.
Agwuncha SC, Anusionwu CG, Owonubi SJ,
Rotimi Sadiku E, Busuguma UA, David Ibrahim I. Extraction of cellulose
nanofibers and their eco/friendly polymer composites. En: Sustainable Polymer
Composites and Nanocomposites [Internet]. Springer International Publishing;
2019 [citado 2021 Mar 7]. p. 37–64. Available from:
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-05399-4_2
16.
Singh A, Ranawat B, Meena R. Extraction
and characterization of cellulose from halophytes: next-generation cellulose
fiber source. SN Appl Sci [Internet]. 2019 nov 1 [citado 2021 mar
7];1(11):1–10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1160-6
17.
Herman M. Encyclopedia of Polymer
Science and Technology. 3a ed. New York; 2012. 226 p.
18.
Huda E, Rahmi, Khairan. Preparation and
characterization of cellulose acetate from cotton. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ
Sci. 2019;364(1).
19.
Vazquez A, Foresti ML, Moran JI, Cyras
VP. Extraction and production of cellulose nanofibers. En: Handbook of Polymer
Nanocomposites Processing, Performance and Application: Volume C: Polymer
Nanocomposites of Cellulose Nanoparticles [Internet]. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg; 2017 [citado 2021 mar 7]. p. 81–118. Available from:
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-45232-1_57
20. Amaral HR,
Cipriano DF, Santos MS, Schettino MA, Ferreti JVT, Meirelles CS, et al. Production of
high-purity cellulose, cellulose acetate and cellulose-silica composite from
babassu coconut shells. Carbohydr Polym. 2019 abr 15;210:127–34.
21.
Agarwal S. Biodegradable Polymers:
Present Opportunities and Challenges in Providing a Microplastic‐Free
Environment. Macromol Chem Phys [Internet]. 2020 mar 26 [citado 2021 jun
27];221(6):2000017. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/macp.202000017
22. Emenike EC, Iwuozor KO, Saliu OD,
Ramontja J, Adeniyi AG. Advances in the extraction, classification,
modification, emerging and advanced applications of crystalline cellulose: A
review. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications. 2023 Dec;6:100337.
23. Hagiopol C. Trees: a sustainable
source of lignin and tannin. Natural Polyphenols from Wood [Internet]. 2021
Jan 1 [cited 2023 Aug 6];7–32. Available from:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128222058000037
24. Romoleroux
K, Cárate-Tandalla D, Navarrete R. Calamagrostis intermedia En: Plantas
vasculares de los bosques de Polylepis en los páramos de Oyacachi. Version 2019.
[Internet]. 2019. Available from:
https://bioweb.bio/floraweb/polylepis/FichaEspecie/Calamagrostis intermedia
25. Ministerio
de Ambiente del Ecuador., Flora Web Ecuador, Pontifícia Universidad Católica
del Ecuador. Libro Rojo de Plantas Endémicas del Ecuador [Internet]. Herbario
QCA. 2019 [citado 2021 abr 28]. Available from:
https://bioweb.bio/floraweb/librorojo/ListaEspeciesPorFamilia/500363
26.
TAPPI. Alpha- , beta- and
gamma-cellulose in pulp. Test Methods T 203 cm-99. Atlanta: Technical
Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry. 1999.
27.
Wypych G. Handbook of Polymers
[Internet]. 2a ed. ChemTec, editor. Toronto: ChemTec; 2016. 705 p. Available
from: http://www.manaepd.com/images/handbook of polymer.pdf
28.
Fuller ME, Andaya C, McClay K.
Evaluation of ATR-FTIR for analysis of bacterial cellulose impurities. J
Microbiol Methods. 2018 ene 1;144:145–51.
29.
Bao Y, Luo Z, Cui S.
Environment-dependent single-chain mechanics of synthetic polymers and
biomacromolecules by atomic force microscopy-based single-molecule force
spectroscopy and the implications for advanced polymer materials [Internet].
Vol. 49, Chemical Society Reviews. Royal Society of Chemistry; 2020 [citado
2021 Jun 27]. p. 2799–827. Available from:
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2020/cs/c9cs00855a
30.
Gentekos DT, Sifri RJ, Fors BP.
Controlling polymer properties through the shape of the molecular-weight
distribution. Nature Reviews Materials [Internet]. 2019 dic 1 [citado 2021 mar 8];4(12):761–74.
Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41578-019-0138-8
Received: 25 June 2023/ Accepted: 26 August 2023 / Published:15 September
2023
Citation: Manzano Vela D R , Zabala Vizuete R F, Flores Mancheno A .Implications of Particle Size in the Extraction of Cellulose from the Calamagrostis Intermedia Species, Revis Bionatura 2023;8 (3) 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/RB/2023.08.03.57